STUDII / STUDIES

1. Călin GHEMIȘ

UN MORMÂNT APARŢINÂND EPOCII BRONZULUI DESCOPERIT LA DIOSIG (JUD. BIHOR)

A GRAVE BELONGING TO THE BRONZE AGE DISCOVERED IN DIOSIG (BIHOR COUNTY)

The author presents an inhumation grave incidentaly discovered in the 60s, based on the inventory of the grave the author place the discovery in the post- Otomani lll discoveries whom are dated in the first periods of the Late Bronze Age.

2. Gruia FAZECAȘ

MIGRAŢIE ŞI INVAZIE ÎN EPOCA BRONZULUI DIN CRIŞANA

IMMIGRATION AND INVASION IN CRIŞANA REGION BRONZE AGE

Change of a cultural phenomenon has intrigued researches from nurnerous disciplines. 1n archaeology the explanations for cultural changes are dependent upon a reliable observation of the reflections of such changes in archaeological materials. We understand a culture like an assemblage of artefacts that recurs
repeatedly associated in dwellings of the same kind and with burials of the same rite (note 1).
Cultural changes can bea resuit of two different mechanisms: diffusion and migration (note 2). In aur paper we will deal just with the manifestation of the last mechanism.
Population movement may be defined as the original peopling of an area or, if humans already lived there – like in our case, as the repeopling that takes place when a foreign population enters the area and displace or absorbs its native inhabitants. The invading population must bring with it a new language, culture aud in1pose them on the natives.
Immigration is the intrusion of individual settlers into already populated area. The intruders usually travel as members of a family or some other kind of social group. Usually native population assimilates them. But if the inlilligrants arrive in large enough numbers to dominate the entire area, and they bring a new language, culture, etc., to keep them intact, this can be turn in invasion (note 3).
Because along the time we know so many invasions and infiltrat.ion, we can think in the same way for the prehistory tao, but is no good to apply contemporaneous comparations (note 4). This kind ofprocesses: inmligration and invasion was happened at each level of humankind historical development, each one with his specific implications.
In our paper we will present the case of Otomani culture. Otomani culture was choosen like a practicai example because in the northwest part of Romania is the mast well know cultural manifestation at the national and European level.
Otomani culture, which was developed in Middle Bronze Age (MBA) in Carpathian Basin, is a very important cultural manifestation, nat only for his big area and his long time duration, but for his position at crossroad of many commercial routes tao. And through this of his connection with different cultures is a key culture for a good acknowledge of MBA from Central Europe.
The beginning and the end of this culture were and still are the subject of many disputed ideas. For a no longer dry discussion will say, like the majority of researchers that Otomani culture was developed in Reinecke Bz A2 – C (note 5).
For an analysis of elements concerning immigration or / and invasion will make a short presentation of principal features of Otomani culture. Type of settlement the main part of Otomani settlements is represented by open settlement in plain area, with or without fortification system, in near of rivers, other types are tel1 type settlement and hill fort settlement.
The last was a]ways fortificated in the first stages but at the end of Bz B, beginning of Bz C the fortification was destroyed (note 7). The houses are builded on post structure with storage pits in corners and with one – two hearts for domestic fire, some times with open hearts in outside of houses. Funeral rites with a very few exception from the beginning and end stages of this culture when are some incineration burials, the rest of burials are inhumed in large cemeteries (like Tiszafured) or small one (like Pir) (notes 8 – 11 ). The predominant shapes of the pottery are pots, jugs, bowls and bi-conica] urns (or krater – predominantly in the last stages). The ornaments are mainly incisions on the neck, in spiral shape on body, sometimes around of a button. Here I want to emphasise about wagon models that are a characteristic feature of this culture (note 12). Apa – Hajdusamson depot horizon, represents the metallurgy of Otomani culture. The principal pieces are swords, axes ( disc butted, shaft tube and shaft hole) bracelet, majority ofthem with spiral omaments. Jewellery is well represented by gold pieces which was fiend mainly in tell type settlement (Săcuieni, Jaszdozsa, Toszeg, Tiszasuly). Bone industry is one of the principal features of this culture. No another Bronze Age culture till now and after that (maybe with exception of Noua – Sabatinovka culture has a such high levei of bone industry). The raw material is mainly from deer horns bun not only. The principal products of this kind of industry are represented by psalia for horse harnachament or agricultural tools (note 13).
The cultures from the end of Early Bronze Age (EBA) – Reinecke A1, which was in this area, before Otomani culture is Hatvan culture, Nagyrev culture, Sanislău group and Kostany culture (note 14).
We don’t want to insist over the different aspects of these cultures, but the principal features of these are tel1 type settlement opened settlements in the plain or fortified settlements on promontory. Burial rite was predominantly incineration (note 15). Bronze metallurgy is still in the formation process, with very few objects find it in settlements. Stone industry is still well represented. The shape of the pottery is represented by the same shapes but the omaments are different (incision is predominant, zoomorphic figures and shapes are distinct for this period) and very characteristic is textile and besenstrich ornament.
A good ilustration of transition from EBA to MBA and apparition of the newest culture – Otomani – we can see in tell type settlements, like those from Toszeg, Sacuieni, Tiszafured, etc. This, because of a long stratigraphic sequence, or incase of fo11ified hill settlements, like those from Otomani – Cetatea de pamant, Salacea – Dealul Vida or Barca (note 16).
We didn’t find any trace of mass destruction or demographic changes at this cronological levei – transition between EBA/MBA – (increasing of burial number, charcoal levels in settlements). Because even in fortificated settlements on promontory we don’t find this kind of destruction layers or stopping of habitation is a strong argument for a peaceful development of this area.
At the end of MBA in area occupied before by Otomani culture people apear new cultural manifestations. In the last phase of MBA in this space appear the Tumulus culture – Koszider period. Because of different environment that they find bere, they change a part of their customs (note 17). After a short time of cultural unity, at the beginning of Late Bronze Age (LBA), a regionalisation process was happened. In this way appear Piliny, Cehăluţ and lgriţa cultures, Tape type group, etc, which in fact is the same culture but with local features (notes 18 – 20).
Their settlements are at the beginning on the same places where was before Otomani cultures, but after a short period they prefer different sites – maybe because was a more pastoralist, more mobile culture. We know just very few settlements from this period, the majority- unfortified, with a short existence. Funeral rite was mixt. Appear a lot of incinerated burials, some of them with scattered ash in a pit or at the surface under a tumulus. We meet alsa incinerated burials in urns (which later will be more developed – Urnfieldkultur), but in the same tin1e are some surviving inhumed burials. A new pottery appears in LBA, represented by dish especially black colour, with buttons encircled by caneluris. Urn is alsa another vessel type that occurs very often. The metallurgy is well represented in depots that are included in Kosider funde horizon.
After this presentation of cultural development in Bronze Age from Carphatian Basin, I will present my opinion conceming the topics of this paper: immigration and invasion.
For a long time was believed that Otomani culture people was a warrior population, this because of numerous bronze weapon finded and for their fortificated settlement (note 21). Some researcher said the emergence of this culture in this area is the resuit of an invasion from south which bring here a new economy, reflected in tel1 type settlement (note 22).
The fact that we don’t know any manifestation of an invasion make us to believe that rather was an immigration process, which was happened in a long time, as we can se from the necropolises from the beginning of MBA (note 23). Becouse of their technological advance the local population adopted step by step their culture (note 24).
At the end of MBA we consider that was a Tumular immigration, which was a long lasting one and because of their high number they finished to assimilate the local population. From their coming în this part of Carphatian Basin we don’t know any element of fortification, all of the former fortificated sites now was whiteout walls and ditches (note 25). The depotfunde horizon from Kosider period and from beginning of BrD stage can be interpreted Jjke storage of wealth of the reach people. Is hard to belive that a population hides their treasures in a place, which they must leave in a short time.
So the both periods (beginning and ending of MBA in Carphatian Basin) are marked by important changes: cultural, population, economy. But these are nat the resuit of an invasion with destroings and total change of alogen population, which conducted at mass rrugration (note 27).
There îs more than one reason for the peopJjng or repeopling of an area. The migrants may have responded to their own over population or to pressure from neighbouring populations. Altematively or in addition, they may have been attracted by more favourable conditions in their now homeland. And they may alsa have been affected by changes in the natural and/or human components of either old or their new environments (note 28).
In Bronze Age the crafts are specialised and social stratification is developed. When a persan become rich, this persan will present his success through exotic products consuming (note 29). This is applicable for cultures to – like incase of Otomani culture, w hich has the control of important resources (gold, salt), or has the control of important commercial routes from north to south and east to west Europe. Amber from Baltic region and faience beads from east Mediterranean region is a good proof for that. At Ganovce was discovered the earliest iron dagger in Central Europe ( note 30 ). A lot of weapons and jewellery with mycenian influence was discovered in area of Otomani culture.
The present evidence supports the hypothesis that during Bronze Age, Europe was connected by a number of inter-locking regional exchanges networks, in which goods moved intemally by such mechanisms as gift or redistribution and în the peripheral areas and betweennetworks by barter and trade (note 31). This network of înterlocking exchanges spheres retaîned a high degree of coherence and stability during the European Bronze Age. At the beginning of this century this aspects of material culture was înterpreted like innovation after an învasion (note 32).
A change can be indifforent ways: from one equivalent of artefact to another, from simple to complex, from a style to another, increase or decrease of variety ortechnologicalcomplexity, changes in quantity(note 33). But nat all this changes are related just to invasion or immigration. Tobe able to explain any change in the development it is alsa necessary to define and express as exactly as possible the nature and size of the change observed (note 34).
Archaeologist should classify their data before inferring migration and its alternative from them. They should start with local area-period units established through chronological research and should define those units in terms of their diagnostic cultural norms in order to produce complexes of nom1S, each indicative of a local population or people and its culture. Then they may infer hypothesis of population movement, local development, or acculturation (note 35). A good proof for invasion or immigration we find in changes of funeral rite, of settlement pattem or of agricultural regin1e, than in changes of bronze artefacts – which can be o change of fashion ( note 36). Is interes ting to see some changes in prehistoric ages like a resuit of mobile economies, which can explain very well the regional changes (note 37). In the last years prehistoric archaeologist explain much more the changes through an internai local evolution. And when exotic pieces appear, they are interpreted like a treasure growth of local Ieaders and nat like a change of a aristocracy (note 38). The data obtaining from anthropological and ethnographic studies are useful for a understanding of pattern changes in prehistory, but aur interpretation must be one based mainly on archaeological evidence (note 39).

3. Sorin BULZAN

UN DEPOZIT CERAMIC DESCOPERIT ÎN AŞEZAREA DE EPOCĂ ROMANĂ DE LA ORADEA „SERE”

ROMAN AGE CERAMIC DEPOT DISCOVERED IN THE SETTLEMENT FROM ORADEA „SERE”

In the west part of Oradea on the left side of route Oradea – Borş, in the year 1999, was dane a rescue excavation. From the roman period settlement was discovered a pit with 3, 14 m diameter, and 1, 15 m in deep. On the bottom was identified intact or almost complete 14 pots and ceramic objects (Pl. 1,2). The stratigraphic situations show that first chronological level, clay, and ash, covered the recipients. Between the pots and the bottom of pit isn’t any levei of habitation. A second level in the pit was one with burnt clay and ash, probably from the roof or another structure. A latest layer was failed inside, from the habitation levei of settlement. All these stratigraphycal observations can be conclusive to suppose that life of this building was very short, or to conclude that the pit was made for leading the ceramic depot.
The inventory discovered inside may be separated in two parts. First, the 14 vessels, and secondly, the pottery fragments discovered in the first level together with aninrnls bones. All these pots have good analogies in so called sarmatians settlements of Great Hungarian Plain, as well as in the sarmatian cemeteries of roman period. An exception is object noted with number 6.
The pots no. 1 and 12 was hand made, yellow – brownish color and strong shaped form (Pl. 3 )*. 1n the Vaday’s classification are the resemblances with same forms but not for this din1ensions (Vaday 1989, Abb. 53, 59-61). No. 3 made in same technique and color had also resemblance with one from an object found in one sarn1atian grave (Vaday 1989, pl.189,9). The no. 2 and 14 had elongated forn1s, the same color, and from this point of view recall the dacian Latene profiles. 1n Hungarian Plain these form of had small dimensions (eventually Verde 1989, Abb. 53, 17). The cup with no. 8 is typically sarmatian (Vaday 1989, Abb. 53, 49-53, in special 51; Abb. 54, 19). Instead the no. 9 mug like forn1 but whithout handle had not good analogy, eventually except one of the grave 60 from Ftizesabony dated at the end ofl, and beginning ofthe Il century AD (Farkas 1998, p. 71sq, pl. 1,13).
A special category after the Hungarians researchers M. Parducz and A Vaday is the cup, no. 10, and the lid, no. 13, the latest decorated with the finger, who comes in the Hungarian Plain at the end of IV century AD., and belonged to anew populat.ion, most probably the dacians. 1n fact is constitutive forms for the dacian pottery, with analogy in Molda via and Valachia in the IV century A.O. and conected with Cernachovian culture elements (Parducz 1973, p. 63sqq; Vaday 1989, p.177 with n. 820). The close resemblance of the phenomena and also from ceranlic material is known in Banat region, north of the Danube at Subotica – Voivodine in Serbian and Monte-Negro Federation (see Parducz 1972, p. 63, with sinlilarities for hand made pottery at Kardoskut settlement) and at Lenauhein1 (Romania), perhaps also at Jebel (Romania) (Bejan 1973; id. 1995, p. 49sq). The Subotica depot was dated to late roman period and at the beginning of the Humric Age. Ins pite of unknown archaeological context these could be interpreted as ceranlÎc depots like that of Oradea – ‘Sere”.
The whell-made pottery is represented by grey polished pot no. 4, originally with two handles with analogy at Subotica and also at Lenauhein1. This form could be directory piece for dating. This recipient with high neck, spherical body and sharp delinlitation of neck is, after A. Vaday, characteristic feature for ill-IV century. The others well made bowls is no. 11, fine grey, and no. 5, fine brick-like color (see Vaday 1989, p. 153 sqq, Abb. 42, 8 şi 42, 15 analogy for no. 11, Abb. 42/28 for no. 5).
The hypothesis of eastem carpian-cerneachovian influences in this sarmatian features context sugest that this kind of ceramic may be interpreted also as local development for hand made pottery ornan1ented with finger. The peak of this category is known in the forn1er Dacia roman province territory and outside in the IV century and was stated also as eastern dacian influences represented by Chilia-Militari cultural aspect, respectively Sfântul Gheorghe ( Op re anu 1994). The beginning of these technique can be pointed at the ill century following the stratigraphy from the roman nlilitary camp from Gilau material (Ţentea, Marcu 1997: Marcu, Ţentea 2000). In the settlements of Biharkerestes – Artand „Nagyfarkasdomb” and „Kisfarkasdomb”, (near romanian-hungarian border, in ancient time inside of so-called „sarmatian” wall) not far from Oradea – „Sere”, was found a great number of hand-made potteries with typically dacian omaments (Nepper 1983, 1984). Both of them were dated in II-III and first third of IV century. Together with these finds was discovered sannatian pieces too and was attributed as such. Near Biharkerestes was discovered a pit sinlilar in all the aspects with that from Oradea (Nepper 1971). At Oradea „Ghetarie” was also found sam1atian and dacian archaeological material (Ignat, Bulzan 1997, p.495sq, 507). The conclusion is that in this area the term „sarmatian” could be topographically one, like the roman word Sarmatia, and can denote a political statement and also an cultural medium with various aspects strongly influenced by Romans. The Gemrnnic evidence come at few hundred meters from Oradea ‘Sere” settlement in a pit in where was found a cornb with one row of teeth and semicircular handle, together with one bucket handle. The problem whether the two of them are contemporary.
The depot character and utility can be for storage of cereals or for dry ceramic, like others building from the Hungarian plain (Nepper 1983, 83sq, fig.2; Vaday; Văros 1979-1980, pl. Xill, 2, and perhaps Hajdu et alii 1997, 109). lbis utility is possible at Oradea too. Against this hypothesis for the pit from Oradea is presence and the position of pots. Those was laid down in inverted position, except no. 7, and the fact that object no. 6 was put also inverted in recipient 7. From this point of view the good analogy can be find at Tauberbischofshein1 in a roman period pit with 15 pots. Most of them laid down in inverted position, which was interpreted as religious gift, or votive offering originated in the custom of germanic Latene (Pescheck 1998, p. 7sq). The same pits with ceramic depots apears in the Latene dacian settlernents (end of II – beginning I century B. C.) at Sfântu-Gheorghe ” Bedehaza”, Sânsirnion „Grajduri” and Mereşti in Transylvania ilustrating the sarne religious custorn. At Sânsimion the well-made bowls was inscribed with sarmatian signs ( Crişan 2000, p. 116 sq). The preference for hand made pottery from those offering can be distinguish also at Oradea. In the Latene oppidum from Tăşad a dacian eared cup was put in the bottom of one pit, and two hand-made recipients was laid down in a stane cisla for religious pourpose (Chidioşan 1981-1982). At Cârlomăneşti in Valachia the clay vessels was done for the topic deity (Sanie 1987, 127sq).
In the roman provinces, like in Barbaricum, at Oradea, Lenauhein1 or Subotica, perhaps Jebel and Ghenetea (near Oradea, for the last site see Dumitraşcu. Nanaşi 1972) ceramic depots were put in the pits. An exemple in Dacia was found at Stolniceni (Tudor 1967; Macrea 1969), in inventory hand-made dacian and roman pots, and in Pannonia Inferior at Aquicum an terra sigillata depot (Gabier 1976). Except the detailed article of D. Gabler is not other comprehensive study for roman period depots in north-eastem roman perovmces.
For the profan and sacral caracter of Oradea’s depot arcbeological research of other period may offer some help. 1n Bronze Age, for exemple, a recent volume put together the metodological debats and the arheological evidences with sacred topography like isolated places, caves, or high points and others wich in modem think can be understand as saint like in prehistory (Hănsel 1997, p. 1 lsqq; A. Hănsel 1997; Czyborra 1997). The questions appear for the settlements, where, in the lack of most sure context, it ist hard to find the
evidences for rituals and votive offering. At last, another argument for the sacred caracter of Oradea ceramic depot can be invocated for the object no. 6, unknown to my knowledge in roman period. Once more, the analogy with the bronze Age can be helpfull to ilustrated the functionallity for fire protection of dwellings and other tirnber building. 1n roman age and just hypoteticaly this object can serve for burning incence.

4. Sever DUMITRAȘCU

VÂNĂTORI DE BOURI DIN CRIŞANA ÎN SECOLUL AL XIII-LEA

BUBALUS HUNTERS FROM CRIŞANA IN THE 13th CENTURY

The author presents four documents, which mention the bubalus hunting in Crişana in 13th century (1208, 1213, 1214), in the centers along the Someş-Crasna, Barcău, Crişul Repede and Crişul Negru, rivers. There are also known the leaders of these hunters: MERT, PAUL and IOACHIN. Some from they are nobleman, so they have heraldically nobler insignias, probably some of these with bubalus-head.

5. Ioan CRIȘAN, Alexandru SĂȘIANU

TÂRGUL MEDIEVAL CEFA ÎN LUMINA UNOR DESCOPERIRI MONETARE

LA BOURGADE MEDIEVALE DE CEFA A LA LUMIERE DES DECOUVERTES MONETAIRES

La localite Cefa du departement de Bihor apparaît dans Ies documents pour la premiere fois en 1302. Vingt ans apres, en 1322, elle avait deja le droit de marche, pour re~evoir, en 1421, le statut de bourgade. En outre, elle etait station de douane. Elle avait aussi une citadelle aux murailles. Les documents emis par Ies autorites de l’epoque et Ies decouvertes archeologiques attestent le fait que Cefa etait une bourgade prospere, un etablissement intermediaire entre village et ville. Les decouvertes monetaires que nous presentons, faites aux environs de la localite Cefa et en son voisinage, completent, avec de nouvelles donnes, l’image de cette bourgade medievale et de sa micro-zone.
A I’ aide des sources dont nous dis posons jusqu’ a present on peut dire que la periode de grand developpement de Ia bourgade de Cefa a ete aux XIV-XVIe siecles. Les decouvertes monetaires nous permettent de supposer que le marche a continue mĂme pendant Ies invasions et sous la domination des turcs, quand beaucoup d’etablissements ont ete quittes.

6. Florina CIURE

TRANSILVANIA ÎN LUMINA UNOR SCRIERI ŞI MANUSCRISE DIN BIBLIOTECA MUZEULUI CORRER DIN VENEŢIA (SEC. XVI-XVII)

TRANSILVANIA NELLA LUCE DI ALCUNI LIBRI E MANOSCRITTI PROVENIENTI DAL MUSEO CORRER DI VENEZIA

L’articolo si riferisce ai libri e manoscritti di secoli XVI-XVII riguardanti la Transilvania che si trovano nella Biblioteca del Museo Correr di Venezia. Dopo una breve introduzione riguardante il museo e le sue collezioni, sono presentati i libri che parlano della realta transilvane, essendo trattate principalmente le questioni politiche del principato, ma ci sono notizie anche sugli abitanti e le citta di questa provincia.
Anche i manoscritti trattano le cose di Transilvania, quelle di natura politica come la lotta contro gli ottomani, o di natura geografica, essendo ben identificato il territorio della provincia. Tra questi sono interessanti due, uno che riguarda i rapporti fra Sigismondo Bathory e il Sultano ottomano, e un altro che descrive Io stato del principe Gabriel Bethlen e notai vantaggi che potrebbero ottenere i veneziani da questa provincia.
Questi documenti inediti o poco noti dimostrano il grado di conoscimento della realta transilvane alla Venezia nei secoli XVI-XVII.

7. Ioan CIORBA

EFECTE DEMOGRAFICE ALE MARII FOAMETE DINTRE ANII 1813-1817 ÎN REGIUNEA BIHORULUI

EFFETI DEMOGRAFICI DELLA GRAN FAME DEGLI ANNI 1813-1817 NELLA REGIONE DI BIHOR

Un gran numero d’articoli e lavori hanno provato negii ultimi decenni (specialmente d’un tratto con l’apparizione delia rivista Annales Economies. Societes. Civilisation nel 1929) di portare sempre nuovi argomenti, nelia prova di delucidazione deli”evoluzione delia popolazione durante la fame. L’ articolo presente si e proposta, in conformita ad alcuni documenti inediti provenuti dai vari tipi di registri parrocchiali o circoscrizioni sacre, per sorprendere l’ evoluzione dei principali elementi demografici (natalita, nuzialita, mortalita) di Bihor, durante l’intervallo delia gran fame, che era stato attivato in questa regione fra 1813 e 1817, potendosi notare una crescita preoccupante delia mortalita, che fa un forte contras to alia diminuzione delia natalita e del numero di matrimoni religiosi, segni certi delie alcune grave crisi demografici, specifici alle vecchie societa prevalenti rurali.

8. Cristian APATI

CONSISTORIUL ORTODOX DIN ORADEA OFICIU ADMINISTRATIV ŞI AGENT AL MODERNIZĂRII (sfârşitul sec. al XVIII-lea – prima jumătate a sec. al XIX-lea)

LE CONSISTOIRE ORTHODOXE D’ORADEA. OFFICE ADMINISTRATIF ET AGENT DE LA MODERNISATION (FIN DU XVIIIe SIECLE – PREMIERE MOITIE DU XIXe SIECLE)

Apartir de la deuxieme moitre du XVIIIe sjecle Ies nomes modernisatrices de l’etat Habsbourg ont implique meme l’Eglise Orthodoxe Roumaine en Ardeal, Crişana et Banat. L’etude-ci met en valeur le role d’interface don’t le Consistoire Orthodoxe d’Oradea l’a eu, cet office administratif qui assurait la liaison entre l’ etat Habsbourg modemasateur d ‘un cote et la monde roumain orthodoxe de l’autre, un monde ecrasant rurale. De cette maniere, le Consistoire Orthodoxe d’Oradea se fait inscrire dans l’immense „appareil” birocratique imperial.

9. Adrian APAN

ALEXANDRU STERCA ŞULUŢIU. CONFESIUNE, NAŢIUNE, POLITICĂ ŞI ISTORIE (1850 – 1867) (I)

IL MITROPOLITA ALEXANDRU STERCA ŞULUŢIU. CONFESIONE, NATIONALITA, POLITICA E STORIA

Il mitropolita Alexandru Sterca Şuluţiu, dal inizio della sua attivita eclesiastica, si a mostrato molto interessato sull svolgin1ento di importanti dispute su temi politichi e nazionali. Ha saputo molto bene combinare, in modo tradizionale per la Transilvaniai i tre demersi politici, eclesiastici e nationali, i quali glia usati perlo scopo di alzare il prestigia della sua „natione” e per il guodoguo di una autonomia giustificata per varie basi.
Anche se qualche storico l’haniesso in qualche oscurita, Alexandru Sterca Şuluţiu si impone treunite la chiarezza dello suo visione politica e nazionale vicino altre personalita del tempo.
Verso la fine dello sua vita, Şuluţiu a capito, come i suoi proseguitori, chele legioni politiche dovevano essere giustificate con argumenti storici. in questo senso il mitropolita ha svilupatto una ricca attivita scientifica- storica, vicino a dei suoi amici, che l’ha usato per sostenere i suoi desideri nazionali. in conclusione, il mitropolita, per le sue attivita, e diventato un vero esponente nel dominio della Chiesa ma anche nel dominio della politica e storia.

10. Lucia CORNEA

VECHI ATELIERE FOTOGRAFICE DIN BIHOR

ANCIENS ATELIERS PHOTOGHAPHIQUES DE BIHOR

Cet ouvrage se place a la suite de nos recherches d’histoire de la photographie locale, recherches deja valorisees partiellement a propos des anciens ateliers photographiques d’Oradea. Nous y apportons maintenant un complement necessaire, en y ajoutant d’autres localites de Bihor, villes et communes d’une certaine in1portance, dans lesquelles ont fonctionne, depuis les annees ’70 du XIX.< siecle, des ateliers photographiques stables.
En etudiant l’histoire des ateliers photographiques du departement de Bihor, nous avons vecu Ies difficultes d’une telle entreprise. D’une part, la presse quotidienne provinciale, source d’infomiation in1portante pour ce
theme, est moins representee par rapport a la presse parue a Oradea. D’une autre part, dans Ies collections publiques de photographie historique que nous avons etudiees, on conserve moins de photographies produites dans des ateliers de Bihor. N ous avo ns utilise, d’ apres le nombre de photographies conservees, la collection du Departement d’Histoire du Musee du Pays des Criş d’Oradea, la collection de la Phototheque Historique du Musee National Hongrois de Budapest, la collection du Musee Memorial «Iosif Vulcan» d’Oradea, et la collection du Musee Deri de Debrecen. On doit souligner ensuite le fait que l’ acces aux albums de familie et aux collections privees, excepte pour les collections appartenant a des collectionneurs deja connus, se fait en general d’une maniere aleatoire.
Du point de vue methodologique, nous avons considere plus pratique et plus utile de passer en revue ces ateliers sous forme de repertoire, suivant l’ordre alphabetique des localites. La liste des ateliers suit egalement l’ordre alphabetique. Nous avons aussi note Ies eventuelles relations existant entre differents ateliers, certains d’entre eux etant Ies successeurs d’entreprises anciennes.
Les adresses et les numeros de maison qui apparaissent dans cel article sont ceux de l’epoque.
On ne peut pas toujours se prononcer avec exactitude sur la periode de fonctionnement des ateliers. Pour certains d’ eux on n’ a eu aucune autre source d’information, saufles photographies, dont la plupart ne sont pas datees. On Ies a datees, ne seraitce qu’approxirnativement, en analysant Ies elements de mobilier et de mode vestirnentaire figurant sur les irnages, ainsi que le style de la marque d’atelier figunu;it au verso. Il serait faux de croire que dans Ies ateliers photographiques de Ia province ont travaille seulement des photographes de competence moindre. Panni Ies proprietaires d’ ateliers photographiques de Bihor on peut compter quelques bons professionnels: J6zsef Karolyi et Karoly Pelikan de Diosig, Lajos Munkacsi de Beiuş etc. D’ autres ateliers de Bihor etaient en fait des ateliers-filiale ouverts par des photographes tres connus tels que Gyula Bekes et son atelier de Salonta.
Pour l’entre-deux-guerres, on remarque deja la concurrence des photographes amateurs qui commern;aient a priver Ies ateliers professionnels de certaines categories de photographies qui, autrefois, leur avaient apporte d’importants revenus: photographies de famille, de groupes, paysages, photographies de reportage. Les ateliers professionnels de Bihor ont supporte aussi la concurrence des ateliers d’Oradea qui envoyaient leurs agents dans la province pour racoler de la clientele, pratique qui se rencontrait surtout Ies jours des foires hebdomadaires dans Ies villes et Ies villages du departement.
Au cours de la recherche ont ete identifies quelques photographes amateurs dont Ies noms sont aussi mentionnes dans cet article.
Pour Ies chercheurs interesses par la production des ateliers photographiques de Bihor nous avons indique aussi Ies lieux de conservation et de provenance des photographies etudiees.
L’histoire des ateliers photographiques de Bihor reste un theme toujours ouvert. Certainement, au cours de la recherche, il supportera encore de nombreux complements et meme des corrections.

11. Radu MILIAN

ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNTUL CONFESIONAL ÎN TRANSILVANIA DUALISTĂ

L’ENSEIGNEMENT CONFESSIONNEL DANS LA TRANSYLVANIE DUALISTE

Jusqu’f la moitie du XIX””” siecle, le reseau scolaire en Transilvanye etait assez modeste. L’ etat n’ entretenait pas d’ ecoles rournaines. Les seules ecoles roumaines par I’ eglise. Par exemple, en 1844, le rapport entre la population hongroise et celle allemande de T ransylvanie et le nombre d’ ecoles etait f 574 habitants. En ce qui concerne Ies roumains, ils avaient une ecole pour 2.199 habitants.
La situation se redressera dans la deuxieme moitie du siecle, quand, par I’ effort du clerge, on va construire et moderniser plusieurs ecoles dans les regions habitees par Ies roumains.
Le metropolite Andrei Şaguna a le râle le plus important dans l ‘organisation de l’ enseignement confessionnel roumain pour l’ administration de l’ enseignement roumain. Apres 1870, celui – ci devient definitif.
L’ enseignement roumain de Transilvanye dans la deuxieme moitie du XIXcnie siecle est soumis i un considerable proces de l’hongroirisation qui annule la plupart des efforts de l’eglise. Par consequent on a en f faire avec un augmentation du nombre des analphabetes, qui a atteint 39,2% entre Ies roumains de Transylvania en 1906. Le probleme sera resolu apres 1918.

12. Lucian DRONCA

ÎNFIINŢAREA ŞI ACTIVITATEA UNIUNII BĂNCILOR ROMÂNEŞTI DIN TRANSILVANIA, ”SOLIDARITATEA”(1907-1918)

THE CREATION AND THE LABOUR OF THE „SOLIDARITATEA” UNION OF THE ROMANIAN BANKS IN TRANSYLVANIA (1907-1918)

At the end of the 19th century – beginning of the 20th century, within the framework of the Roman.ian financial-banking system in Transylvania, a reform stream was outlined. The situation was caused by certains defficiencies found in the functioning of severa! Roman.ian banks, which led to the necessity to constitute a superbanking body to coordinate their activity. This body was constituted in Sibiu, on July 16th, 1907, as the „Solidaritatea” Union of the Romanian Banks in Transylvania. The leading body was made up of several directors of the main Romanian banks in Transylvania, amongst which the mast important was Partenie Cosma („Albina” Bank). The activity of the ”Solidarity” association aimed at coordinating and checking the activities of the members banks with the help of expert auditors, the activity being debated periodically within general assemblies. The banking Union „Solidaritatea” consolidated on an economic level the positions strengthened by the Romanian leaders of Ardeal on a political level by adopting activism as a means of expression of the Romanian National Party. In this way, they sought to avoid the interference of the state with the credit system of the nationalities, as other nations in the Austro-Hungarian Empire did.
Under the patronage of „Solidaritatea”, an office that mediated business for the member banks was constituted. But due to the reduced financial means, some of the aims of this association could not be reached such as the issue conceming systemization of the employees’ pensions who worked for the member banks, the constitution of common funds for cultural aims, a.s.o. During the First World War, „Solidaritatea” was compelled to tightly collaborate with the Hungarian institutions of financial control, which was a prerequisite of its survival.

13. Gabriel MOISA

POZIŢIA SOCIALIŞTILOR ROMÂNI DIN UNGARIA, TRANSILVANIA ŞI BANAT FAŢĂ DE REVOLUŢIA MAGHIARĂ DIN 1919

LA POSITION DES SOCIALISTES ROUMAINS D’HONGRIE. TRANSYLVANIE ET BANAT A’LEGARD DE LA REVOLUTION HONG ROISE

Les socialistes roumains ont eu de diverses attitudes a l’ egard de la revolution bolchevique de l’ Hongrie. Quelgues-uns y ont adhere en devenant membres combatants sur le front de la lutte revolutionnaire. Dans cette categorie se trouvent surtout ceux gui ont ete surpris en Hongrie par le deroulement des evenements. Les autres socialistes roumains, notamment ceux de Transylvanie, n’ont pas agree le mouvement bolchevigue, etant les adeptes des idees socialistes democratigues. Une autre difference entre les deux categories a ete gue les premiers etaient contre l ‘union de la Transylvanie avec la Roumanie, en desirant une Transylvanie dans le cadre d’un etat hongrois, dans l’esprit des idees de l’intemationalisme proletarien, en temps gue les autres etaient les soutenants de l’union de la Transylvanie avec la Roumanie, ceux-ci etant membres du Conseil Dirigeant et l’elite des politiciens roumains de la Transylvanie qui militaient pour l’union. Il y avaient aussi des socialistes de l’actuel espace roum_ain, surtout des gens de Banant, gui ont manifeste contre l’union. Mais ceux-ci n’etaient pas nombreux et bien organises pour pouvoir influencer la decision finale.

14. Ioan Sorin CUC

REÎNFIINŢAREA EPISCOPIEI ORTODOXE LA ORADEA

LE RETABLISSEMENT DE L’EVECHE ORTHODOXE A ORADEA

Les demarches pour la fondation de l’ Eveche Ortodoxe d’Oradea commencent depois l’annee 1919, a occasion de la visite du roi Ferdinand I a Oradea. Dans l’annee 1920; on a mis eu discussion le probleme de l’organization d’un futur eveche dans le Conseil Dirigeant et le Congres National de l’ Eglise. Pendant Ies mois juillet – aout 1920, le pro get de la loi de refondation a ete vate par le parlement, signe par le roi et a 14 septembre 1920 il a ete publie dans le Monitoire Officiel. Roman R. Ciorogariu a ete elu eveque d’Oradea.

15. Radu ROMÎNAȘU

ACTIVITATEA EDITORIALĂ A REUNIUNII CULTURALE „CELE TREI CRIŞURI” ÎN PERIOADA INTERBELICĂ

THE PRINTING ACTIVITY OF THE REUNJON „CELE TREI CRIŞURI” DURING THE INTERWAR PERIOD

The cultural Reunion „Cele Trei Crişuri” was created in the automn of 1919 in Oradea from the initiative of a group of local intellectuals. Its aim was the cultural emancipation of Romanians from the western boundary within the new realities created after the moment of 1918.
For achieving this purpose, the Reunion acted through the intermediate of specific means of cultural spreading ( artistic and literary reunions, conferences, festivities, concerts, organization of libraries and museems ), an important role having also the printing activity through which the Roumanian word printed was spread in Roumanian society from the interwar period.
No doubt that the Reunion was the best expressed in the cultural bihorean interwar landscape through the magazine Cele Trei Crişuri which become in the same time with its appearance from 1920 its organ of press. Within its pages several various problems were dealt with. lt was publisched various historical and literar articles, completed through the prezentation of political. Social and cultural happened in the country and abroad. Each number of the magazine included a certain topic presented and sustained through the intervention of his different writers of the country.
Around the magazine Cele Trei Crişuri was started alsa the action of making closer the Romanian-Hungarian cooperation through the intermediate of culture. A first step was achived through the creation of the magazine Aurora ( 1922-1923) with bilingual articles which encouraged the process of reciprocal translations from the two literatures.
Starting with the year 1923, the Reunion edited a magazine destined mostly at the problems of Romanian village, being entitled Cele Trei Crişuri pentru popor.
Another aspect of the printing activity was the printing of some brochures regarding the national propaganda ( until the year 1939 were printed 16 brochures of this type) which contributed to the promotion of Romanian culture.
Beyond all the difficulties whit which the Reunion was confronted, it can be noticed an energic cultural activity initiated of by this for the cultivation of Romanian population from the western boundary of Romania.

16. Iudita CĂLUȘER, Ana ILEA

BIBLIOTECA PUBLICĂ DIN ORADEA ÎN PERIOADA 1920-1930. ÎNCEPUTURILE BIBLIOTECII ROMÂNEŞTI

LA BIBLIOTHEQUE PUBLIQUE D’ORADEA ENTRE 1920 ET 1930. LES DEBUTS DE LA HIBLIOTHEQUE ROUMAINE

La viile d’Oradea, l’un des principaux centres humanistes de l’epoque, jouit d’une riche tradition concemant l’existence de quelques bibliotheques de grande valeur deja au XVe siecle. Ces bibliotheques ont appartenu soit a certaines personnalites, soit a des institutions ecclesiastiques ou culturelles. Dans tous Ies deux cas, eiles avaient un circuit clos.
L’interet pour la lecture determina au XIX’ siecle la fondation de quelques bibliotheques publiques a acces illimite.
C’est en 1911, a l’occasion du Congres de I’ Association des Musees et des Bibliotheques que fut inauguree la premiere bibliotheque publique d’Oradea.
Fondee sur des documents d’archives inedits, l’etude presente Ies debuts de la bibliotheque publique roumaine d’ Oradea a la suite de la realisation de l’ U nion de la Trans ylvanie avec la Roumanie. Les fondements de cette bibliotheque sont poses en 1921. L’ auteur presente Ies demarches entreprises pour lui assurer un espace adequat, pour procurer des livres roumains, ainsi que des donnees concemant la cassification du fonds de livre, Ies evidences utilisees, l’embauchement et la formation du personnel necessaire. Le Reglement de la bibliotheque fut elabore en 1922.
Les statistiques qui accompagnent l’etude iilustrent l’evolution du fonds de livre, le nombre des lecteurs qui ont frecquente la bibliotheque, la categorie sociale des lecteurs et leur nationalite, le nombre et le profil des livres sollicites. L’ouverture et le fonctionnement de cette bibliotheque apporta un souffle nouveau de culture roumaine dans la viile d’ Oradea.

17. Corina MAGHEAR

O CONFERINŢĂ PROTOPOPEASCĂ GRECO-CATOLICĂ DESPRE PERICOLUL IMINENT AL COMUNISMULUI

UNA CONFERINZA ARCICHESALI GRECO-CATTHOLICHE SUL PERICOLO IMMINENTE DEL COMMUNISMO

Nell’ann0 1948, la Chiesa Greco-Cattolica di Romania e stata messa in illegalita dai regime communista, essendogli confiscate tutti gli avuti, ma anche le chiese. Avendo come precedente la sopressione della Chiesa Greco-Cattolica di Ucraina, I preti e gli gerarchi romeni haooo cercato di diffendire, di rinforzare nella fede tramite la promovazione di uno spirito religioso piu intenso tramite quale poter’ resistere all’immistione bolcsevica. Senza dubio, tutti I loro sforzi si sono mostrati inutili perche Io slancio de] communismo a scacciato tutti li valori cristiani e con questi, anche la Chiesa.

18. Augustin ȚĂRĂU

REFORMA AGRARĂ DIN ANUL 1945- PREAMBULUL PROCESULUI DE COLECTIVIZARE A AGRICULTURII
ROMÂNEŞTI – Repere ale aplicării Reformei agrare în judeţele Nord-Vestului României

REFORME AGRARE DE 1945 – LE DEBUT DU PROCES DE COLLECTIVISATJON DE L’AGRICULTURE ROUMAINE

J’ ai essaye de surprendre Ies moments et Ies etapes fondamentaies de la Reforme agrare de 1945. Utiiisee par Ies forces groupees dans Ie Fronte NationaI Democrate, coordonnees par Ie Parti Communiste, comme instrument de propagande, cette reforme agrare a ete, en reaiite, Ie premier pas fait dans le proces de dissoiution de Ia grande propriete agricole de Roumanie.
Le Parti Communiste avait promis aux paysans pouvres des terraines en propriete, mais Ie vrai but etait de supprimer Ia categorie sociale des grands proprietaires fonciers, Ies opposants essentiels du regime totalitaire. Seulement apres 4 ans, la reforme agrare a ete annulie par le commencement du proces de collectivisation de I’ agriculture.

19. Nicolae MIHU

CRIZA „TRANSILVANIEI DE NORD” AUGUST 1944-MARTIE 1945 – Vecinii şi strategiile propuse pentru dezmembrarea teritorială a României

LA CRISE DE ”TRANSYLVANIE DE NORD” – AOUT 1944-MARS 1945

L’etude essaie de clarifier le probleme controverse de „Transylvanie de Nord”, tenitoire roumain perdu en 1940 en faveur d’ Hongrie, grace du Diktat de Vienne, instrumente par Musolini et Hitler.
Apris I’ eliberation de cette province, dans I’ automne de I’ annee 1944, par Ies armees roumaines et sovietiques, Ies hongrois ont mis en application une serie de strategies afin de mentenir I’ Ardeal entierement ou seulement une partie. En ne pouvant pas foire acela, ils ont essaye obtenir l’autonomie de I’Ardeal meme sons la fom1e d’une republique en Unione Sovietique.
Dans Ies meme conditions Ucraine a essaye I’annexion de la region Maramureş et Jugoslavie a force l’incorporation de Banat.

20. Claudia TIȘE

„ACTIO CATOLICA” – MIJLOC DE REZISTENŢĂ A BISERICII CATOLICE ÎMPOTRIVA REGIMULUI COMUNIST DIN ROMÂNIA

„ACTIO CATOLICA” -MOYEN DE RESISTANCE DE L’EGLISE CATHOLIQUE CONTRE LE REGIME COMMUNISTE EN ROUMANIE

L’ouvrage surprend quelques aspects concemant la resistance de l’Eglise catholique en Roumanie durant le regime communiste. L’ auteur met surtout en evidence Ies efforts des prelats catholiques, ayant en tete l’ eveque Marton Aron, de sauvegarder ce qu’on pouvait encore de cette Eglise. Selon l’opinion de l’ auteur, Actio Catholica fut un instrument extremement efficace pour garder l’identite religieuse.

CONSERVARE – RESTAURARE / CONSERVATION – RESTORATION

Olimpia MUREȘAN

Câteva consideraţii privind coroziunea şi conservarea metalului etnografic (I)

Some Consideration about Corrosion and Conservation of the metalic Folk Objects

The museum of folk arts have got metalic objects. The conservation of this objects depends on their usage, on chemical caracteristics of the metal, on its storage and their manufacture.
The degradation of metal in known as corrosion. At these objects, the stress corrosion predominates, an electrochemical process, determinated by usage. The corrosion process of the folk metal artefacts don ‘t deteminated important or total mineralisation.
The investigation consists in technological examination, structural and metalographical.
The most frecvent degradations are: the rushing of iron, the bronz desease and the tarnish of the silver folk jewelry.
Their conservation are realised controlling the enviromental parameters and protecting by filrns on object’s surface, according special attention to out door pieces.
Usually, the surfaces of tools, folk tools, were protected by a correct manufacture. The conservation of metalic objects is an activity of research to discover and to apply a good protection.

Ronald Hochhauser

Cronica primei sesiuni de arheologie industrială din România

La chronique de la premiere session internationale d’archeologie industrielle de Roumanie

Le Ministere de la Culture et des Cultes, la Direction des Monuments Historiques et la Direction pour la Culture, Cultes et Patrimoine Culturel National du district Caraş-Severin a organise entre 25-28 septembre 2002 le deuxieme atelier d’ archeologie industrielle. La manifestation a constitue pour la Roumanie la premiere reunion intemationale specialisee dans ce domaine.
A cette session ont participe des specialistes de natre pays et de l’entrangere, des personnes impliquees dans l’activite de recherche scientifique et de recuperation des valeurs de patrimoine industriei. Pendant les conţerences on a presente des etudes de cas, des rapports de recherches scientifiques, des considerations theoriques et des propositions concretes d’intervention sur Ies objectifs industriels etudies.
Les participants ont eu I’ occasion de visiter plusieurs objectifs techniques ayant une valeur de patrimoine : L’ ensemble des moulins de la valee de Rudăria, Les mines d’ Anina, Le chemin-de-fer Oraviţa-Anina, La centrale hydro-electrique „Grebla”, Les usines des Domaines Reşita et le Musee des locomotives.
La suivante rencontre des specialistes dans le domaine aura lieu a la fin du mois de septembre 2003, dans le municipe Cluj-Napoca.

RECENZII / BOOK REVIEWS

1. Keith Hitchins, Afirmarea naţiunii: Mişcarea naţională românească din Transilvania 1860-1914, Bucureşti, 2000, 391 p. (Adrian Apan)
2. Stejărel Olaru, Cei cinci care au speriat Estul. Atacul asupra Legaţiei RPR de la Berna (februarie 1955), Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2003, 289 p. (Gabriel Moisa)